Taksonomi berasal dari bahasa Yunani Tassein berarti untuk mengklasifikasi dan nomos yang berarti aturan.
Dalam merumuskan tujuan instruksional kita dapat mengacu pada konsep taksonomi yang dikemukakan oleh Bloom. Konsep Taksonomi Bloom dikembangkan pada tahun 1956 oleh Benjamin Bloom, seorang psikolog bidang pendidikan. Konsep ini mengklasifikasikan tujuan pendidikan dalam tiga ranah, yaitu kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik
Dalam merumuskan tujuan instruksional kita dapat mengacu pada konsep taksonomi yang dikemukakan oleh Bloom. Konsep Taksonomi Bloom dikembangkan pada tahun 1956 oleh Benjamin Bloom, seorang psikolog bidang pendidikan. Konsep ini mengklasifikasikan tujuan pendidikan dalam tiga ranah, yaitu kognitif, afektif dan psikomotorik
Taksonomi tujuan instruksional pun membagi tujuan pendidikan dan instruksional kedalam tiga kelompok sebagai berikut:
- Kognitif, tujuan kognitif berorientasi pada kemampuan berfikir (intelektualitas), dari mulai kemampuan intelektual sederhana sampai dengan kemampuan memecahkan masalah. Tujuan kognitif ini biasanya sering digunakan dalam merumuskan tujuan instruksional karena lebih mudah diukur dalam hasil akhirnya dibanding dengan tujuan afektif.
- Afektif, tujuan afektif lebih berhubungan dengan perasaan, sistem nilai, emosi, sikap hati (attitude) yang menunjukan penerimaan atau penolakan terhadap sesuatu. Sama halnya dengan tujuan kognitif, tujuan afektif pun terdiri dari tujuan yang sederhana (exm : memperhatikan suatu fenomena) sampai dengan yang kompleks yang merupakan faktor internal seseorang (exm : kepribadian, hati nurani).
- Psikomotor , tujuan psikomotor berorientasi kepada keterampilan motorik yang berhubungan dengan anggota tubuh atau tindakan (action) yang memerlukan koordinasi antar syaraf dan otot. Seperti kegiatan latihan menulis, berbicara dan berolahraga.
RANAH-RANAH TAKSONOMI BLOOM
- RANAH KOGNITIF
Category
|
Example and Key Words (verbs)
|
Knowledge: Recall data or information.
|
Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices
from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules.
Key Words: defines, describes, identifies,
knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes,
reproduces, selects, states.
|
Comprehension: Understand the meaning,
translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems.
State a problem in one's own words.
|
Examples: Rewrites the principles of test
writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task.
Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.
Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends,
distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example,
infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.
|
Application: Use a concept in a new situation
or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom
into novel situations in the work place.
|
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an
employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the
reliability of a written test.
Key Words: applies, changes, computes,
constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates,
predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
|
Analysis: Separates material or concepts
into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood.
Distinguishes between facts and inferences.
|
Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of
equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in
reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the
required tasks for training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares,
contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates,
distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects,
separates.
|
Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern
from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on
creating a new meaning or structure.
|
Examples: Write a company operations or
process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates
training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to
improve the outcome.
Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles,
composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies,
organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises,
rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
|
Evaluation: Make judgments about the value
of ideas or materials.
|
Examples: Select the most effective
solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget.
Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes,
contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates,
evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.
|
KODE
|
KATEGORI
JENIS PERILAKU
|
KEMAMPUAN
INTERNAL
|
KATA-KATA
KERJA OPERASIONAL
|
C1
|
Pengetahuan
(knowladge)
|
Mengetahui
Misalnya :
Istilah
Fakta
Aturan
Urutan
Metode
|
Mengidentifikasi
Menyebutkan
Menunjukan
Memberi nama pada
Menyusun daftar
Menggarisbawahi
Menjodohkan
Memilih
Memberikan definisi
Menyatakan
|
C2
|
Pemahaman
|
Menterjemahkan
Menafsirkan
Memperkirakan
Menentukan
Misalnya : Metode
Prosedur
Memahami
Misalnya : Konsep
Kaidah
Prinsip
Kaitan antara
Fakta
Isi pokok
Mengartikan/Menginteprestasikan
Misalnya : Tabel
Grafik
Bagan
|
Menjelaskan
Menguraiakan
Merumuskan
Merangkum
Mengubah
Memberikan contoh tentang
Menyadur
Meramalkan
Memperkirakan
Menerangkan
Menyimpulkan
Menggantikan
Menarik kesimpulan
Meringkas
Mengembangkan
Membuktikan
|
C3
|
Penerapan
|
Memecahkan masalah
Membuat bagan & grafik
Menggunakan
Misalnya : Metode/prosedur
Konsep
Kaidah
Prinsip
|
Mendemonstrasikan
Menghitung
Menghubungkan
Memperhitungkan
Membuktikan
Menghasilkan
Menunjukan
Melengkapi
Menyediakan
Menyesuaikan
Menemukan
|
C4
|
Analisa
|
Mengenali kesalahan
Membedakan
Misalnya:
Fakta dari interprestasi
Data dari kesimpulan
Menganalisa
Misalnya : Struktur dasar
Bagian-bagian
Hubungan antara
|
Memisahkan
Menerima
Menyisihkan
Menghubungkan
Memilih
Membandingkan
Mempertentangkan
Membagi
Membuat Diagram/skema
Menunjukan hubungan antara
|
C5
|
Sintesa
|
Menghasilkan
Misalnya : Klasifikasi
Karangan
Kerangka teoritis
Menyusun
Misalnya : Rencana
Skema
Program kerja
|
Mengkategorikan
Mengkombinasikan
Mengarang
Menciptakan
Mendesain
Mengatur
Menyusun kembali
Merangkaikan
Menghubungkan
Menyimpulkan
Merancangkan
Membuat pola
|
C6
|
Evaluasi
|
Menilai berdasarkan norma
internal
Misalnya : Hasil karya seni
Mutu karangan
Mutu ceramah
Program penataran
Menilai berdasarkan norma
eksternal
Misalnya : Hasil karya seni
Mutu karangan
Mutu pekerjaan
Mutu ceramah
Program penataran
Mempertimbangkan
Misalnya : Baik-buruknya
Pro-kontranya
Untung ruginya
|
Memperbandingkan
Menyimpulkan
Mengkritik
Mengevaluir
Memberikan Argumentasi
Menafsirkan
Membahas
Memilih antara
Menguraikan
Membedakan
Melukiskan
Mendukung
Menyokong
Menolak
|
- RANAH AFEKTIF
Category
|
Example and Key Words (verbs)
|
Receiving
Phenomena:
Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.
|
Examples: Listen to others with respect.
Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.
Key Words: asks, chooses, describes,
follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits,
erects, replies, uses.
|
Responding
to Phenomena: Active
participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a
particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in
responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding
(motivation).
|
Examples: Participates in class
discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts,
models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and
practices them.
Key Words: answers, assists, aids,
complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices,
presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.
|
Valuing: The worth or value a person
attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges
from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing
is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to
these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often
identifiable.
|
Examples: Demonstrates belief in the
democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve
problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with
commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.
Key Words: completes, demonstrates,
differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins,
justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.
|
Organization: Organizes values into priorities
by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and
creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing,
relating, and synthesizing values.
|
Examples: Recognizes the need for
balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility
for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving
problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life
plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time
effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges,
combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes,
identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates,
synthesizes.
|
Internalizing
values (characterization): Has a value system that controls
their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and
most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional
objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment
(personal, social, emotional).
|
Examples: Shows self-reliance
when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays
teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a
professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises
judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for
what they are, not how they look.
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays,
influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies,
questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.
|
KATEGORI
JENIS PERILAKU
|
KEMAMPUAN
INTERNAL
|
KATA
KERJA OPERASIONAL
|
Penerimaan
|
Menunjukan
Misalnya : Kesadaran
Kemauan
Perhatian
Mengakui
Misalnya : Kepentingan
Perbedaan
|
Menanyakan
Memilih
Mengikuti
Menjawab
Melanjutkan
Memberi
Menyatakan
Menempatkan
|
Partisipasi
|
Mematuhi
Misalnya : Peraturan
Tuntutan
Perintah
Ikut serta secara Aktif
Misalnya : Di
laboratorium
Dalam diskusi
Dalam kelompok
Belajar/tentir
|
Melaksanakan
Membantu
Menawarkan diri
Menyambut
Menolong
Mendatangi
Melaporkan
Menyumbangkan
Menyesuaikan diri
Berlatih
Menampilkan
Membawakan
Mendiskusikan
Menyelesaikan
Meyatakan persetujuan
Mempraktekan
|
Penilaian/penentuan sikap
|
Menerima suatu nilai
Menyukai
Menyepakati
Menghargai
Misalnya : Karya seni
Sumbangan ilmu
Pendapat
Bersikap (positif/negatif)
Mengakui
|
Menunjukan
Melaksanakan
Meyatakan pendapat
Mengikuti
Mengambil prakarsa
Memilih
Ikut serta
Menggabungkan diri
Mengusulkan
Membela
Menuntun
Membenarkan
Menolak
Mengajak
|
Organisasi
|
Membentuk sistem nilai
Menangkap relasi antara
nilai
Bertanggung jawab
Mengistegrir nilai
|
Merumuskan
Berpegang pada
Mengintegrasikan
Menghubungkan
Mengaitkan
Menyusun
Mengubah
Melengkapi
Menyempurnakan
Menyesuaikan
Menyamakan
Mengatur
Memperbandingkan
Mempertahankan
Memdifikasikan
|
Pembentukan pola
|
Menunjukan
Misalnya : Kepercayaan diri
Disiplin pribadi
Kesadaran
Mempertimbangkan
Melibatkan diri
|
Bertindak
Menyatakan
Memperlihatkan
Mempraktekan
Melayani
Mengundurkan diri
Membuktikan
Menunjukan
Bartahan
Mempertimbangkan
Mempersoalkan
|
- RANAH PSIKOMOTOR
Category
|
Example and Key Words (verbs)
|
Perception: The ability to use sensory cues
to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through
cue selection, to translation.
|
Examples: Detects non-verbal
communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and
then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove
to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the
forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the
pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.
|
Set: Readiness to act. It
includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are
dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations
(sometimes called mindsets).
|
Examples: Knows and acts upon a
sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and
limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This
subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the “Responding to
phenomena” subdivision of the Affective domain.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
|
Guided
Response: The
early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial
and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.
|
Examples: Performs a mathematical
equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds
hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds
|
Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage
in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and
the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
|
Examples: Use a personal
computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car.
Key Words: assembles, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
|
Complex
Overt Response: The
skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement
patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated
performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes
performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example,
players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they
hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of
the act what the result will produce.
|
Examples: Maneuvers a car into
a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately.
Displays competence while playing the piano.
Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates,
constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates,
measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
NOTE: The
Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that
indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
|
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and
the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.
|
Examples: Responds effectively
to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of
the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally
intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing
the new task).
Key Words: adapts, alters, changes,
rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
|
Origination: Creating new movement patterns
to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
|
Examples: Constructs a new
theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new
gymnastic routine.
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines,
composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.
|
KATEGORI
JENIS PERILAKU
|
KEMAMPUAN
INTERNAL
|
KATA
KERJA OPERASIONAL
|
Persepsi
|
Menafsirkan rangsangan
Peka terhadap rangsangan
Mendiskrimininasikan
|
Memilih
Membedakan
Mempersiapkan
Menyisihkan
Menunjukan
Mengidentifikasikan
Menghubungkan
|
Kesiapan
|
Berkonsentrasi
Menyiapkan diri (fisik
& mental)
|
Memulai
Mengawali
Bereaksi
Mempersiapkan
Memprakarsai
Menanggapi
Mempertunjukan
|
Gerakan terbimbing
|
Meniru contoh
|
Mempraktekan
Memainkan
Mengikuti
Mengerjakan
Membuat
Mencoba
Memperlihatkan
Memasang
Membongkar
|
Gerakan terbiasa
|
Berketrampilan
Berpegang pada pola
|
Mengoperasikan
Membangun
Memasang
Membongkar
Memperbaiki
Melaksanakan
Mengerjakan
Menyusun
Menggunakan
Mengatur
Mendemontrasikan
Memainkan
Menangani
|
Gerakan kompleks
|
Berkterlampilan secara
Misalnya : Lancar
Luwes
Supel
Gesit
Lincah
|
Memilih
Membedakan
Mempersiapkan
Menyisihkan
Menunjukan
Mengidentifikasikan
Menghubungkan
|
Penyesuaian pola gerakan
|
Menyesuaikan diri
Bervariasi
|
Mengubah
Mengadaptasikan
Mengatur kembali
Membuat variasi
|
Kreativitas
|
Menciptakan yang baru
Berinisiatif
|
Merancang
Menyusun
Menciptakan
Mendesain
Mengkombinasikan
Mengatur
Merencakan
|
Kata-kata kerja operasional tersebut diatas dapat digunakan dalam merumuskan tujuan instruksional khusus (tujuan pembelajaran khusus). Kata-kata kerja operasional yang digunakan disesuaikan dengan ranah-ranah yang akan dikembangkan melalui pembelajaran yang dilaksanakan.
Semoga bermanfaat ^_^
sumber-sumber :
